A511.3.3.RB – Power and Influence

Ah! Power and Influence: The gravitational force of leadership. A person who lacks possession of these essences cannot be a leader.

Our reading this week walked us through types of power and influence along with how one could acquire, or lose, these necessary gifts.

“Power involves the capacity of one party (the “agent”) to influence another party (the “target”), but this influence has been described and measured in several different ways. The term may refer to the agent’s influence over a single target person, or over multiple target persons. Sometimes the term refers to potential influence over things or events as well as attitudes and behavior. Sometimes the agent is a group or organization rather than an individual. Sometimes power is defined in relative rather than absolute terms, in which case it means the extent to which the agent has more influence over the target than the target has over the agent.”(Yukl, 2012)

The depth and breadth of the power and influence is impacted by many variables. Interestingly, the perception of power may be the most important aspect of the lesson this week. If the target perceives that the agent possesses power, influence is possible. A raw form would be the use of a bluff in the game of poker. Conversely, if the target lacks the perception that the agent possesses power, it does not exist. Think of the “Do you know who I am?” rants that sometimes occur at airline ticket counters or hotel check-in desks.

“An agent will have more power over some people than over others and more influence for some types of issues than for others. Furthermore, power is a dynamic variable that changes as conditions change. How power is used and the outcomes of influence attempts can increase or reduce an agent’s subsequent power.”(Yukl, pg. 186)

We all have learned to operate in the influence of power. As babies we were beholden to those that provided for our needs. (In a role reversal, our cries provided us with the power to command our parents. “Feed me! Change me! Hold me!”) We learned who could get us what we needed and, as we grew, what rules they had for us to follow. We learned basic skills in the wielding of power and influence from reacting to our parents and teachers.

We learned that roles can provide legitimacy of power. The teacher can make your life miserable and the Principal will back her or him up. There are rules that define the power.

We recognized reward power. We learned who could provide us with treats or free time.  We found out about coercive power, too. We learned who could ground us and what would get us grounded. There might even be some corporal punishment to drive the point home.

As we progressed through school, opportunities to experience expert power could be found in our teachers and professionals with whom we interacted. They had the knowledge we needed. When we couldn’t get the information easily, or just wouldn’t provide it, we learned the power that merely holding information could provide.

Finding out that there are jobs that are more comfortable to do, or more coveted for their pay or prestige taught us that there is power to be found there, as well.

Power and influence are dynamic. As Yukl states, “it changes over time due to changing conditions and the actions of individuals and coalitions.” (Yukl, pg. 193)

My current job requires that I both project and respect power in many ways.

The title and position I have been given by my company sets a certain level of power in the organization. There are policies, processes, and rules that delineate a part of the power I wield. Employees are all educated in the hierarchy of the corporation and have expectations about what I can and cannot ask of them.

Professional expertise and experience provide another source of power for me. I possess government issued licenses and maintain demonstrated technical proficiency at a very high level.  At the same time, the job I hold is considered by many to be prestigious. That provides cachet in some circumstances.

The level of responsibility I am presented with demands that I wield a level of power commensurate to protect the assets and people for whom I am deemed accountable. The expectation of others that I have their safety at heart is the most demanding form of power in my possession. It is the one I am most cautious about using…or not using.

In my organization’s day to day operations there is the power I have to provide opportunities for growth for my direct reports, to provide information freely, to ensure their needs are being met so they can do their jobs economically, and to ensure they feel integral to the operation.

How, when, and to what extent I use the power I have earned (from my peers, reports, and superiors) or donned (from my position) is as variable as the weather. Rarely are days the same. The only thing I know for sure is the there will be lessons learned and I hope to be able to apply what I learn correctly when the chance next arises.

Meanwhile, I am under the influence of all of those forces of power because I work in the middle layers of a very large corporation and perform work, at times, that carries a factor of risk that is comparatively higher than many jobs. As a middle manager, the energy flows up, down, and laterally.

Have I had an opportunity to experience dysfunctional Leader-member-exchange (LMX) relationships? Yes. “The basic premise of the theory is that leaders develop an exchange relationship with each subordinate as the two parties mutually define the subordinate’s role.” (Yukl, pg. 222) As the perfect leader and the perfect subordinate are yet to meet, I know I have been on both sides of this equation in a dysfunctional role.

“When leaders are perceived as exhibiting negative behaviors to subordinates, subordinates reciprocate by engaging in negative behavior.” (Rozhan Othman, 2009) Does one behavior always elicit the other? Not necessarily, and Othman et al discuss the situations in detail, if you get the chance to read their article.

Much like flying an airplane on a flight path can be broken down into multiple corrections “back onto the planned path as a myriad of forces keeps trying to knock you off”, being a leader requires the same type dedicated resilience to being good. The forces trying to distract you and knock you off will always be there. Plan well and keep tracking back to where you need to be. I feel like that is what I am doing all the time.

Yukl, Gary A. (2012-02-09). Leadership in Organizations (8th Edition). Pearson HE, Inc.. Kindle Edition.

Rozhan Othman, F. F. E., Ng Lay Shi. (2009). Understanding dysfuncntional leader-mamber exchange: antecedents and outcomes. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 31(4), 24.

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Here we are in week two!

Our discussion topic concerns supportive behavior by leaders and managers. First, let’s look at what leadership behaviors may fall under the banner of being supportive. In our text, Mr. Yukl provides some guidelines for demonstrating supportive behavior. (2012, pg.64)

• Show acceptance and positive regard.

• Provide sympathy and support when the person is anxious or upset.

• Bolster the person’s self-esteem and confidence.

• Be willing to help with personal problems.

As I read the guidelines and the descriptions provided in the book, the word that kept popping into my head was ‘inclusion’. One of the main draws of being on a team or in a group, at least from my perspective, is the feeling of being included. A leader needs to communicate to the members that they are part of the whole.

The act of being inclusive requires more than sending out a paycheck each week. Demonstrating care and concern for the individual builds deeper ties. To that end, the care and concern being demonstrated by the leader must actually exist. If compliments or support appears the least bit insincere, damage is done to the relationship.

I appreciated the following passage in the book. “Stress is reduced by showing appreciation, listening to problems and complaints, providing assistance when necessary, expressing confidence in the person, doing things to make the work environment more enjoyable, and buffering the person from unnecessary demands by outsiders. Stress is increased by making unreasonable demands, pressuring the person to work faster, being overly critical, and insisting on compliance with unnecessary bureaucratic requirements. Although results in research on the effects of considerate, supportive leadership are not consistent, it is likely this type of behavior will improve subordinate satisfaction and performance in many situations.” (Yukl, pg. 64)  If proper communication is made up front, the need for added stress from the leader should be lessened or removed. If a leader finds they must constantly harangue, coerce, or threaten the group, there are issues of support, communication, and development that need to be addressed before moving on to the next project.

Are there times when stress needs to be applied in the workplace? Yes. Deadlines and performance goals serve those functions admirably. Does every team need occasional motivation to maintain a high level of performance? Yes. Being supportive is one of the methods for motivating a person or team.

A dilemma present in corporate work environments is the perception of being too supportive, especially if the attention seems to fall upon an individual or small group. The Human Resource (HR) shop in many a company has their days filled with allegations of preferential treatment. The rules that managers and leaders must work within make the job of supporting very defined. In extreme cases, legal action has occurred. Harassment, favoritism, or merely the perception thereof, must be avoided.

The first three bullets above can, and should, be handled by the manager. In the case of the willingness to help with personal problems, the company will hopefully have programs and systems in place to help provide that help.  In the event the company does not provide assistance, the manager/leader can provide assistance by identifying professional help for the employee and providing time for the employee to seek that help.

Providing opportunities for subordinates to develop their skills is an integral part of supportive leadership. The guidelines from our book provide an excellent resource from which to begin. (Yukl, pg. 66)

• Show concern for each person's development.

• Help the person identify ways to improve performance.

• Be patient and helpful when providing coaching.

• Provide helpful career advice.

• Help the person prepare for a job change.

• Encourage attendance at relevant training activities.

• Provide opportunities to learn from experience.

• Encourage coaching by peers when appropriate.

• Promote the person’s reputation.

As I have gained experience as a manager, my desire to provide the assistance the guidelines denote has only grown stronger. I am a firm believer that providing opportunities for personal and professional growth to an employee is beneficial to more than just the employee. The company benefits from the person gaining more skills and confidence, the manager benefits by having more skills on their team to bring to bear on issues, and the employee gains skills, knowledge, and confidence.  I believe that if the employee wins, the company will win in the long run. The leader’s role is to locate the opportunities and, maybe more importantly, identify the proper timing of the opportunity. The employee’s desire to grow, the right opportunity, and the right time all need to be present or the result will be less than optimal.

I have been the receptor of growth opportunities. When I was younger, I didn’t appreciate them as much as I do now. I have even gone back and thanked managers from jobs I held long ago after pondering the opportunities they presented me. I learned that I didn’t necessarily see the benefit at the time. The important this is that my manager did see it.

The third part of supportive leadership that Yukl discusses is providing praise and recognition. “Recognizing involves giving praise and showing appreciation to others for effective performance, significant achievements, and important contributions to the organization.” (Yukl, pg. 68)

Let’s take a look at the guidelines provided by Mr. Yukl. (Pg.69)

• Recognize a variety of contributions and achievements.

• Actively search for contributions to recognize.

• Recognize improvements in performance.

• Recognize commendable efforts that failed.

• Do not limit recognition to high-visibility jobs.

• Do not limit recognition to a few best performers.

• Provide specific recognition.

• Provide timely recognition.

• Use an appropriate form of recognition.

Across the companies I have worked for through my career, I would say this recognition has been handled the poorest of all the facets of leadership. Most places have some sort of reward and recognition tools for managers to use. The breakdown comes at the delivery.

Three lessons I have learned that I would gladly pass along are to be sincere, not everyone wants to be recognized in front of a crowd, and to know that an honest ‘thank you’ is one of the best tools you've got.

Taking the time to recognize the efforts of someone means investigating the hours of work, noting the stress they felt, the obstacles they overcame, and the impact of the job they did on the company and the group. Handing them a hat and a handshake is not enough.

In summary, the guidelines of supportive leadership serve to remind us that we lead people. People with lives, needs, and desires that need to be addressed by the leader. I tend to tie the needs back to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, Maslow (1943) because I find the structure easy to remember. Start with the physiological needs of the employee, then the need for safety, love or belonging, esteem, and finally self-actualization. The guidelines above tie in to the basic needs of the employee quite well. The supportive leadership techniques are just another tool to bring to bear as we face the daily challenges at work, home, and in life.

Yukl, Gary A. (2012-02-09). Leadership in Organizations (8th Edition). Pearson HE, Inc.. Kindle Edition.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 26.

A511.1.3.RB_DavisCarl

Welcome back to educatedleadership.blogspot.com!

Leadership and management have been the focus of chapters one and two of our textbook in organizational leadership class.

Is there a line that separates the two terms? Can one be a manager without being a leader? Can one be a leader without being a manager? I believe there are people who think the two skill sets can be separated. I do not subscribe to that theory. In order to be successful, a leader must be able to manage and vice versa.

A comment I heard long ago was, “No soldier was ever managed into battle.” I believe that to be true. However, that soldier had to be managed to the battlefield. Yukl cites Mintzberg’s  taxonomy  of roles for manageing in his book(pg. 29, 2012). There are ten different manager roles noted.

Information Processing Roles

• Disseminator

• Monitor

• Spokesperson

Decision-Making Roles

• Entrepreneur

• Disturbance handler

• Resource allocator

• Negotiator

Interpersonal Roles

• Liaison

• Figurehead

• Leader

While one of the roles is that of leader, I believe leading occurs while carrying out other roles on the list. As figurehead and spokesperson, the implication is that the manager is the leader. The disturbance handler role requires leadership, or the perception thereof, to be recognized as the person who can quell the upset.

Leadership is demonstrated in the entrepreneur and negotiator roles. As an entrepreneur, “the manager of an organization or one of its subunits acts as an initiator and designer of controlled change to exploit opportunities for improving the existing situation.” (Yukl, pg. 30) As a negotiator, “Any negotiations requiring a substantial commitment of resources will be facilitated by the presence of a manager having the authority to make this commitment.”(Yukl, pg. 31)

As we study the two major roles of leadership and management, I will be drawing from personal experience accrued in my jobs as a manager/leader. Without a doubt, I believe a good leader/manager must move seamlessly through all the roles noted by Mintzberg as they are needed, all the while understanding that there are many people looking to him/her to be the leader.

The TEDx talk that we were assigned to watch covers a vital point of leadership. Mr. Sinek says, “People don’t buy what you do, they buy why you do it.” Sinek (2009).  I was reminded of the military saying about winning the hearts and minds of the enemy to turn the war. Both comments speak to the idea that passion is created and nurtured around feelings and ideas.

Recently, while mentoring a new manager at my company, he asked me what my main focus was as a leader. After some consideration, I told him I start with Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs Maslow (1943). those needs include: physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. The people that work for me must have as many of those needs met as possible to be able to commit their focus to the job. Once the employees know I take their needs into consideration, they are much more likely to listen to my vision and direction. They are open to pick up on the feelings I am trying to communicate.

Much of management is tangible. Handling logistics, communicating, dealing with day to day issues all fall under management. The leadership side touches on the intangible. Imparting the vision and the “why” of the task you are setting out to accomplish. Mr. Yukl’s roles(2012), capture that fact in the way the leadership role is intertwined through many of the managerial roles.

I look forward to progressing through this class as I broaden and refine my skills.

Yukl, Gary A. (2012-02-09). Leadership in Organizations (8th Edition). Pearson HE, Inc.. Kindle Edition.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 26.

Sinek, S. (Producer). (2009, January 18, 2015). Start with why – How great leaders inspire action. [Lecture] Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u4ZoJKF_VuA&feature=share&list=PL42F8562DCD3CCEA8

A500.9.4.RB_DavisCarl

Taking the Leadership Foundations in Research course was a rewarding experience. I believe it was a valuable use of my time and has provided me with tools that will be useful in both future classes and life.

There were positive aspects of the course and taking it on-line. I was glad to have the opportunity to set my own schedule and to utilize my years of work experience as a reference. The book we were initially assigned by Nosich (2012) was a positive place to kick off the class. Delving into critical thinking and taking the time to practice the tools in each chapter was an invaluable way to get back into study mode after not having had to do so in a very long time. The opportunities to create a survey on-line and attempt action research were also new areas for me to examine.  Though I didn’t think I would, I ended up finding the research we did on qualitative and quantitative studies to be very interesting and useful. In fact, I now view reports at work differently after applying critical thinking skills and from my new found knowledge of qualitative and quantitative studies. Having insights to the shortcomings of each type of research, I have a better idea what questions to ask. The small scale research project felt like a perfect appetizer for future classwork and the Capstone project.

There were negative aspects of the course. The lack of interaction with other students and with the instructor was a part that I truly missed. The limited interaction did allow for glimpses of what my classmates may be like, but nothing of major substance. One of the benefits I had heard about from friends that have earned their advanced degrees was the camaraderie and friendships they gained through the shared experience and insights of classmates. While the discussion questions did allow an avenue for sharing of some information, the volume was minor compared to live interaction. The instructor, to me, was more like a tour guide than a mentor. He could point out some items, but wasn’t readily available for answers or critique. I have little doubt that the instructors have mountains of assignments to grade each week. That amount of workload has to limit the amount of time they can spend on providing feedback to just minutes per student.

The strict adherence to APA 6^th edition style was a very difficult barrier to overcome. If it were not for a graduate of Embry-Riddle telling me about EndNote X7.1 © software, I would not have passed this course. That fact is a shame. The software is sold through the vendor on the Embry-Riddle portal page. The fact the instructor or school never mentioned it was surprising to me.

I will look for an opportunity to attend one of the classes at the local Embry-Riddle campus, if I can. My schedule is rife with travel that pops-up which makes the World-wide campus the preferred option for me, though. I will make more effort to reach out to my instructor in the future, too. Admittedly, during this course I was extremely busy with work and had a major family situation occur in the middle. I will attempt to moderate my work commitments in the future.

One idea I had about bringing the class and instructor a little closer to the students would be to include a short video intro to each week’s lesson. Even if he or she filmed it on a webcam and uploaded it, I think the connection would be a positive one. Anything to get more interaction than via written electronic media would be a plus.

I’m proud to be at the end of this course and appeared to have completed it to a high level of performance. I have one step down on the path to a Master’s degree. However, it was a very big step.

 

Nosich, G. M. (2012). Learning To Think Things Through: a guide to critical thinking across the curriculum (J. McPherson Ed. 4th ed. Vol. 1). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

A500.8.3.RB_DavisCarl

Let’s look at good presentation design this week. In corporate America there are opportunities daily to review attempts at good presentations. I say this because I do not believe anyone sets out to intentionally make a bad presentation. The daily presentations are rarely in the outstanding category, though.

                The first requirement of creating a good presentation is to know what message you are attempting to deliver. To know that, you must also know the audience to whom you will be presenting. Will it be a group of executives in need of an overview or will it be a group of front line workers that need in-depth explanation of a process, product, or system? This is just a basic communication skill.

                The visual attributes of the presentation are the next things to consider. According to Reynolds, the concepts of contrast, repetition, alignment, and proximity will serve as proper guides.(2008)  Along with Mr. Reynolds book, there are numerous tools that will aid in creating media that doesn’t distract or detract from the intended message. There are thousands of pre-made PowerPoint templates to be found on line that can be used as starting places. It will still be up to the author to employ proper use of contrast, repetition, etc.

                When sketching out the slides, keep in mind that the presentation shouldn’t force the audience read all the information you are trying to present. Retention rates are far higher when information is presented both aurally and visually, with an emphasis on the aural component. (2008)  If the slides are too crowded with writing, the audience will quickly lose interest. Furthermore, there is a tendency for presenters to then “read the slides” which is a sure way to turn off an audience.  This should not be confused with the technique of storytelling. Arranging the information into a story that the audience can follow is an excellent technique. The story should be told by the presenter, not read off of the slides by the audience.

                The use of video and animation should be exercised with discretion. Too much video and you might as well show a film. Some animation is good to keep the audience’s eyes on the slides, but there is a point where they can actually throw off the speaker’s timing. I have witnessed it myself many times.

                To disseminate larger quantities of data that support your presentation, the use of handouts or pamphlets is a good idea. The paper media will prevent the  cluttering of a slide. Pasting an Excel © spreadsheet into a presentation often ends up with a slide that look likes an eye chart.(2008)

                Review, practice, and editing of the presentation are vital and should not be by-passed. The arch enemy of good presentations is lack of time, or not taking the time, to prepare. When up on the stage or dais, or just at the front of a meeting room, having taken the time to practice your pitch will vastly improve the quality of the message you deliver.

                In summary, take the time to know your message. Take the time to know your audience. Consider the visual attributes of the slides. Use the slides to support your story, not tell your story. Don’t forget to use handouts, if necessary. Last, but not least, edit your slides and practice your delivery. You should have a presentation that will make your message memorable.

 

Reynolds, G. (2008). Presentation Zen: Simple ideas on presentation design and delivery (K. Johnson Ed.). Berkeley, CA: New Riders.

A500.7.3.RB_DavisCarrl

I have had an opportunity to review a slide deck covering the topic of quantitative research and its basic principles. (Mamia, 2006) While the data presented was interesting, the message was diminished by the quality of the slides.

            The method is based on the idea that phenomena can be quantified, measured, and expressed numerically.  The classified and transformed onto a data matrix. The matrix is the starting point for analyzing the data. (slide11)

            The research and design process requires diligence and focus on the information to collect. Of equal importance is deciding how the data will be collected. Increasing the objectivity of the data should be a tenet of choosing the collection method. The importance of choosing a proper research design cannot be understated. Use of interviews, observations, or surveys, the time allowed and the target population are some of the considerations that deserve strong attention.

The variables and observation units are collected and populate the boxes in the matrix. The observation units are the people, groups, situations, or information that is being studied. The variables represent data that is being measured to look for trends. The table below is an example of a matrix about the number of times subjects were distracted during a conversation with a researcher. The information is fictional and only to be references for illustrative purposes.

Subject ->	One	Two	Three	Four	Five	Six
Situation
Phone on	15	21	13	24	16	8
Phone off	3	6	4	6	10	1

 

            In looking at selecting the observation units, there may be times when the data group is just too large to poll in its entirety. Use of sampling is warranted in many cases and allows for a representative sample of the larger group to be used. Care must be taken to determine accurate sampling.

The data can then be reviewed and plotted on a chart. Once the plots are complete, analysis for trends and relationships should be more easily recognized via the graphs. At this point, if you have not been doing so already, it is time to ask if the data you are collecting adequately addresses the question you hope to answer. It may be time to refine the questions or the way in which the data is being collected.

            Quantitative data analysis is an extremely useful tool in research. The use of graphs and matrices can, at times, make the data look unsophisticated. However, though the graphs may look simplistic, the amount of information can be of tremendous depth. Given the capability of quantitative research to allow perspectives of situations heretofore unconsidered, it needs to be properly prepared for and executed. In other words, in both qualitative and quantitative research, the phrase from the information technology world applies, “Garbage in, garbage out.”

            Interestingly enough, one of the assignments for week seven was to look back over assignments from week three and review the information presented. It occurred to me that I was using both qualitative and quantitative methods in collecting and reviewing the information. I’m glad to have had the opportunity to already apply what we’re learning.

Mamia, T. (2006). Quantitative research methods: General studies/ISSS.

A500.6.3.RB_DavisCarl

Qualitative research is identified by having findings that are not based on statistical means or other types of quantification. (Hoepfl, 1997) My personal experiences with this type of research come from dealing with cultural anthropologists in the field of Diversity and Inclusion. Attempting to express the cultural reasons as to why someone does, or does not do, something requires the findings that qualitative research produces.  For example, it is easy to use quantitative measure to determine what flavor of ice cream is most preferred by a group of 500 elementary school students.  However, if we wish to determine why a particular flavor is the predominant choice, the capabilities provided by qualitative research through observation and interviews, are far more capable of providing results.

                Qualitative research can be used to look at phenomenon that little is known about or gain new perspectives on issues or situations about which much is already known. (Hoepfl, 1997) Qualitative data can fully describe a situation or phenomenon in ways that are helpful to readers, as well as researchers. (Hoepfl, 1997)

                Qualitative research can also be identified by the way it can use natural settings as a source of data. The researcher acts as the instrument of data collection, the reports that are generated are descriptive in nature and the research is judged on its trustworthiness. (Hoepfl, 1997) In considering the quantity of data collected, that is left to the researcher to decide. The reader is allowed to decide if the sample set was adequate as they judge the legitimacy of the study as well.

The researcher must be keenly aware of the subtleties that could be affecting his or her research. The ability to do this can come from past experience or personal study. The researcher needs to be able to make adjustments as new information is collected. The capability to see the whole as a sum of its parts is something that human researchers bring to qualitative research. 

In determining how to collect qualitative data the researcher needs to consider the logistics of the collection, the focus of the inquiry, whether there will be more than one round of inquiry and if adjustments will be needed, as well as if there will be other data collectors than just the researcher. Additionally, how the data will be analyzed, how trustworthiness will be determined,  and the process for faithfully reproducing  the information must be considered.(Hoepfl, 1997)

                Data collection for qualitative research is primarily in two forms. One technique is to use interviews and the other is observations. Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or free-form. The variations allow for broader exploration if needed. Observational collection can allow for the setting to be researched or for the natural happenings to be viewed. How much the researcher will impose themselves into the situation must be determined prior to the study taking place. There will be impacts to the data that must also be taken into account. Another important consideration is the decision to stop collecting data.

                Analyzing the data can be daunting because of the amount and breadth of information collected through the previously described means. Determining a plan to break the data down into manageable packets will be mandatory. As the analysis is undertaken, taking time to review the overall information to see if the story the researcher is attempting to tell needs revision, will be important.

                There are terms that can be used to determine the quality of the qualitative research. Hoepfl, in Table 1 (Hoepfl, 1997) denotes credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability as terms to consider. Credibility refers to the abundance and quality of the information gathered. Transferability refers to the ability to use the data collected in one study as a reference for another situation. There must be some similarity between the two situations for the data to transfer across.  Dependability is difficult to assess for qualitative research. Consideration should be taken to document the processes to indicate they were followed over time. Confirmability is also difficult, given the subjective nature of the research. Keeping detailed research notes and cataloging information are excellent steps to help the reader maintain confidence in the research.

                Hoepfl provides a very succinct conclusion that I find meaningful. “The decision to use qualitative methodologies should be considered carefully; by its very nature, qualitative research can be emotionally taxing and extraordinarily time consuming. At the same time it can yield information not obtainable through statistical sampling techniques.” (Hoepfl, 1997)

 

Hoepfl, M. C. (1997). Choosing Qualitative Research: A Primer for Technology Education Researchers. Journal of Technology Education, 9(1), 14.